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題名：美國文學的生態意識論述
作者：劉煌城
作者(外文)：Hwong-Chang Liou
校院名稱：國立成功大學
系所名稱：外國語文學系碩博士班
指導教授：柯　克
學位類別：博士
出版日期：2004
主題關鍵詞：固有價值；功利價值；生態意識；荒野維護；共生；人類為宇宙中心；ecological consciousness；wilderness preservation；anthropocentrism
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　　生態評論為一新興之文學論述，該理論強調誇學門研究，即採用美學、哲學、宗教及倫理學來詮釋或探討文學作品中大自然所扮演的角色。本論文援用生態評論( ecocriticism )深入分析亨利、大衛、梭羅,約翰、繆爾，阿勒多、李奧帕德,及愛德華、艾比在美國自然寫作中所呈現之生態意識演化。論文主旨闡述這四位作家於自然寫作文本中如何彰顯大自然不可侵犯之生存權，透過文脈研究探討他們如何建構生態意識(ecological consciousness)，重建人與自然的和諧關係。
　　在梭羅這一章中,作者評述梭羅<湖濱散記>所提倡之簡樸生活經驗, 梭羅自給自足的經濟模式,素食主張,及神聖農耕,足為當今環保人士之典範。梭羅為自然發言並要求讀者傾聽自然之音韻。他與萬物共享資源，並與自然同序的生活藝術孕育了生態意識的濫觴。在<緬因森林>一書中,梭羅驚見荒野遭狩獵、濫墾及築壩對大自然的破壞，了悟荒野維護(wilderness preservation)的重要性。他批判自工業革以降人類輕忽以自然為師之繆誤行徑及挾「人類為宇宙中心」(anthropocentrism)的輕狂態度，呼籲人们拋棄過度經濟取向的生活模式，以謙敬的態度與自然共生(symbiosis)。
　　繼梭羅之後，繆爾更大力倡導荒野維護之迫切性。除了身體力行之外，繆爾成立<山脊協會>，敦促美國政府頒佈森林保育政策，並於1890年成立優勝美地國家公園。梭羅曾說:「大千世界繫於荒野之維護。」繆爾則言:「荒野是普世救贖的希望。」於<夏日在山間 >一書中繆爾回顧1869年深入內華達山脈牧羊的經歷和省思。他以生動的筆觸描繪曠野之美，視自然為心靈的聖殿。他批判人们只見自然資源的功利價值(instrumental value)而忽視其固有價值 (intrinsic value)。呼籲人類當適應自然的改變，而非改變自然，並建構以生態為中心(biocentrism)之生活哲學。
　　李奧帕德延續梭羅及繆爾的生態哲學，並應用他在美國西南部森林保育及狩獵管理的經驗，發展出「土地倫理哲學」(land ethic)，倡導生態平權(biotic equality)，其哲理論述開啟美國自然寫作的新里程。<砂郡年鑑>一書中，每一篇文章皆孕含著李奧帕德對自然萬物敏銳的觀察和省思。書中他以流暢的詞藻回顧、敘述及論證對土地及森林與狼與鹿之間錯綜複雜的關係，引導讀者像山一樣的思考，才能體會以生態為宇宙中心的世界觀。
　　李奧帕德之後的艾比除了承繼上述三位自然作家的生態意識外，更發展出環境保護行動主義(environmental activism)運動。在<沙漠隱士>一書中，艾比回顧巡守沙漠之所見並極力推動荒野維護行動。他說:「荒野不是奢侈品，而是人類精神的必需品。是支撐我們生命不可或缺的，一如水和好麵包。荒野、留白、原始大地已所剩無幾，人類文明若是破壞它，就是跟自己的源頭決裂，就是出賣文明本身的原則。」其生態小說<扳手歪幫>描述四位主要角色如何為維護自然風貌，不惜冒險致力破壞機器及人為建設，以抗拒機械文明入侵荒野。
　　本文所論四位自然作家雖然身處不同年代及環境，卻都利用其文學巧藝和具體行動，建構深具影響力之生態意識。強調大自然生命網中萬物相輔相成的共生關係。作者認為自然寫作文本所呈現的生態哲學論述有助於養成人類謙卑的態度，喚醒民眾敬重大自然，並重建人與自然的和諧關係，進而改善日漸惡化的環境問題。
　　This dissertation explores how Henry David Thoreau, John Muir, Aldo Leopold, and Edward Abbey express ecological consciousness in their nature writing texts. Using the perspectives of ecocriticism, I assert that these writers have begun to change the way humans interact with the natural world. They criticize how humans have radically inflated their own importance in relation to the rest of creation. By applying aesthetic, religious, scientific, and philosophical approaches toward natural world, these writers offer an alternative view that could potentially reorient human activities, lifestyles, and consciousness in an ecologically sound direction.
　　In the Thoreau chapter, I discuss Thoreau’s attitude toward nature in Walden and The Maine Woods. I emphasize the role nature plays in his criticism of American society. I articulate that Thoreau anticipates scientific ecology by exploring and presenting the natural world he encountered as both an actual landscape and an ideal community. I also delineate his assertion that humans can be completely self-sufficient by leading a simple life, sharing the physical environment with the natural Other and corresponding with nature’s cyclic changes without hurting the natural world.
　　In what follows, I’ll analyze Thoreau’s crucial influence on Muir’s ecological consciousness. I point out the differences between Muir and Thoreau in their views of “wildness” although Muir is often treated as Thoreau’s spiritual heir in the preservation movement. Through an examination of his major works, I illustrate how Muir criticizes the exploitation of nature in pursuit of economic growth at the cost of destroying the integrity and beauty of nature. I also exemplify Muir’s struggle for environmental preservation as a model ecologist who studies biocentric ecology and works to liberate all of the phenomena associated with the earth. The ecological thrust of Muir’s preservationism is derived from the ideas of biotic equality. Using biblical language, he shows his appreciation of nature as an inspirer and healer that will purify and refresh people. He expresses this ecological consciousness by protesting against the destruction of the Sierra Nevada forests. He also founded the Sierra Club to support the cause of wilderness preservation.
　　In the Leopold chapter, I will focus on Leopold’s intellectual foundations for preservation practices in my study of Game Management and A Sand County Almanac. As an heir to the ecological thinking of Thoreau and Muir, Leopold is knowledgeable about the management of natural resources in American forests and Wisconsin’s sand county. He rejects the commercial and utilitarian values that result in environmental exploitation. I discuss how Leopold in A Sand County Almanac offers a philosophical paradigm called the “land ethic,” which “changes the role of Homo sapiens from conqueror of the land-community to plain member and citizen of it” (SCA 204). I point out that he tries to reorient human attitudes toward nature by encouraging the public to participate in the preservation movement based on the recognition that humans are a part of the biotic community.
　　Following Thoreau, Muir, and Leopold, Abbey develops ecological consciousness, preservation politics, and the land ethic into environmental activism. In this chapter, I investigate Abbey’s vital critique of the anthropocentrism. His notion of ethical reorientation is guided by a broadened understanding of the questions Thoreau addresses concerning the culture of getting and spending. I illustrate that Abbey presents his shocking art as a critique of individuals and society to awaken us from mundane materialism. In Desert Solitaire and The Monkey Wrench Gang, I have found that Abbey views nature as a live organism. To protect this living organism, he sometimes allows his personae to subvert civil laws. Through the sabotage of eco-warriors, Abbey impresses upon his reader the sense that there is an urgent need to act in order to maintain the “stability, integrity, and beauty of the biotic community” (SCA 224-25).
　　Through their craft, all four of these writers attempt to formulate practical paradigms for maintaining a healthy ecosystem that is essential for the good of all natural things. The theme of ecological consciousness recurs throughout the writings of Thoreau, Muir, Leopold, and Abbey. Nature is alive and everything is interconnected in the web of life. I conclude my dissertation by asserting that nature writing helps humans restore harmonious human-nature relations by energizing the environmental protection movement through love, respect, and humility.
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