傳統上論及身體－靈魂二元的問題主要以笛卡見以擴延性和認知性二分物質與精神為代表。二十世紀中期以來，這樣的觀點卻開始受到持消減的物質主義的哲學家質疑，而趨向將人類的心靈、知覺等活動化歸於腦的反應過程。八○年代開始，認知科學藉由各種精密儀器的幫助，並綜合心理學、語言學、腦神經科學等各方面的研究，對於人的本性的描述取消心智現象、只剩身體現象，直接造成對西方哲學自由意志、主體意識的觀點以及宗教討論靈魂、相信、永生等議題之巨大衝擊。是否認知科學上種種精密的腦神經實驗數據就足以解釋人一切的活動？理性／意志的決定就只是一連串腦神經的機械反應？物質化的人觀沒有靈魂、沒有主體意識也就沒有上帝的形像、原罪等問題，因而人和上帝之間的聯繫也無立足之處？本文將從拉納以基督信仰「靈」的人觀所發展的理論來回應此問題。

Descartes' definition of humanity as the combination of res extensa and res cogitans has been the representative theory on the debate over body-soul dualism. Since the middle of the 20th century, however, this perspective was challenged by philosophers who upheld the Eliminative Materialism and tended to reduce human mental and sensory activities to the reaction process of the brain. Beginning from the 1980s, with the help of various kinds of sophisticated instruments and the interdisciplinary study of psychology, linguistics, and neuroscience, cognitive science, which describes human nature as a mechanical or physical process without soul/mind, has exerted much impact on western philosophy on the issues of free will, consciousness (Bewusstsein), and mind (Geist), as well as on religion on the issues of soul, faith, and eternity. Are the data from the sophisticated experiments of neuroscience sufficient to give a comprehensive explanation of human activities? Are decisions based on reason and will just a series of mechanical reactions of the nerves in the brain? Does the materialistic view of humanity without soul/mind, without the image of God, and without the original sin nullify the relation between God and human? This paper seeks to answer these questions based upon Karl Rahner's concept of soul/mind (Geist).