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題名：臺灣地區家庭部門時間配置與家務產值之研究
作者：趙弘靜
作者(外文)：CHAO,HUN-CHING
校院名稱：中國文化大學
系所名稱：經濟學研究所
指導教授：許振明
學位類別：博士
出版日期：2002
主題關鍵詞：家務生產；家事工作；時間配置；時間運用；勞動參與；內生轉換模型；近似無關迴歸分析；home production(house work)；time allocation(time use)；labor participation；endogenous switching regression model；seemingly unrelated regression estimation；SURE
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衡量經濟在一定期間內之生產活動，進而評估國民之經濟福利，一般多以國民所得來表示。惟國民所得的統計，是最終產品之市場價值。因此，未透過市場交易之自產自用物品及勞務，均沒有涵括在內；其中以家庭主婦提供的家務生產或勞務最為人忽視。隨著Becker及Lancaster「新消費理論」之崛起，以及Nordhaus及Tobin(1973)「經濟福利衡量」(measure of economic welfare, MEW)估計法之提出，家庭部門的生產活動漸漸受到大眾的重視。在美國這樣經濟高度開發之社會，家庭產值約可增加整個市場經濟活動產值的三分之一(Hawrylyshyn,1976)；而Gronau(1980)的估計則更高於此。近來，總體經濟學家更注意到在經濟景氣循環中，家務生產與市場生產間之替代性，Benhabib, Rogerson及Wright（1991）因而建議將家務生產函數納入「實質景氣循環模型」（real business cycle model），並視其為總體經濟模型中所遺漏之重要解釋變數。綜上所述，均突顯出家務生產之重要性。
在法律層面上，本（2002）年立法院已三讀通過民法親屬篇之修正，明訂夫妻應對「自由處分金」有所協議，以表彰家務勞動之價值。然而, 臺灣地區家務生產活動向來鮮有嚴謹的估計，導致該法條之執行過程中，並沒有相關家務產值資料供為參考。因此，本研究之主要目的，在於建構臺灣地區家庭部門有偶婦女時間配置及家務生產之估計模型，利用行政院主計處民國八十九年七月「人力資源調查」及附帶專案「婦女婚育與就業調查」的原始資料檔，以10,518名已婚婦女為對象，驗証決定有偶婦女從事勞動參與、家務生產、與休閒活動的影響因素，以及估計婦女家務之生產力與產值。
本研究主要分為三大部分：（一）在勞動參與決策部分，特別強調婦女勞動參與行為所造成的樣本選擇性問題，以Heckman二階段估計法，來修正樣本的選擇性偏誤；（二）在時間配置決策部分，採勞動供給內生化架構，利用「內生轉換模型」（endogenous switching regression model），將勞動參與決策納入時間配置函數中估計；並考慮不同型態的時間分配之間存在著相關關係，以「近似無關之迴歸分析法」（seemingly unrelated regression estimation；簡稱SURE），分別估計有偶婦女之家務工時、休閒時間以及市場工作時間等三種時間配置行為；（三）在家務產值部分，採用Gronau(1980)的理論模型，估計臺灣地區婦女家務之生產力及產值，俾初步地勾勒出臺灣地區家務生產之輪廓，充實我國估計MEW之範疇，並供為未來家事法庭審理「自由處分金」之參用。
本研究結果發現，八十九年七月臺灣地區有偶婦女之家務產值，中位數為5萬1千元，占每戶每月平均金錢收入之63.99%，所占比率與Gronau(1980)驗證美國家務產值約占家庭稅前金錢收入之60%，占稅後金錢收入70%之情形相當。此外，本研究利用行政主計處之擴大係數檔，以「比率估計法」進行母體推估工作，估計我國有偶婦女家務產值之總量，計約4兆8,246億元；亦即我國八十九年未經市場交易之家庭經濟產值，約占經由市場交換機制統計國民生產毛額9兆8,034億元之49.21%，此項比重與Hawrylyshyn(1976)對家務產值之估計，美國約占全國GNP的三分之一，其他開發中國家約占GNP的五、六成，顯示我國有偶婦女家務產值占GNP之比重，居於世界各國的中間地位。
Generally, the production result of the economic society and the evaluation of citizen''s economic welfare in a certain period are always measured by the Gross National Product (GNP). However, the GNP is the market value of the final product; all of those self-producing, self-use articles as well as services not passing through the market mechanism are not included. The most obvious case is the household chores provided by housewives. Due to popularity of the "new consumption theory" propounded by Becker and Lancaster and the "measure of economic welfare ( MEW )" reckoned by Nordhaus and Tobin (1973), the home production of the household sector is becoming more important to the public. For example, in a well-developed country like the United States, Hawrylyshyn found out that the value of home production accounts for about 1/3 of GNP (1976); and the Gronau’s reckoning (1980) is even much higher. Recently, the macroeconomist also notices its importance of the replacement of market production in the business cycle. Benhabib, Rogerson and Wright(1991), instead, suggested treating the home production as a missing variable in all kind of macroeconomic models and put the home production function into the estimation of real business cycle model .
The research on home production of household sector in Taiwan is rarely seen. In the year 2002, the Legislative Yuan passed a Civil Law Amendment tackling this matter. It clearly stipulates that couples should consult each other on the "money at house worker’s disposal ", and highlights value of the household chores labor. This thesis aims to establish an estimation model for time allocation and home production in Taiwan. The thesis refers to the original data of "Manpower survey "and "Women’s Marriage, Fertility and Employment Survey" conducted by Directorate-General of Budget, Accounting & Statistics（DGBAS）in July 2000, selects 10,518 samples of married women to examine the variables affecting married women’s labor participation, household chores capacity and leisure activities, and also to estimate the productivity and the value of home production.
This research will be divided into three parts: ( 1 ) labor participation estimation: to highlight the sample selection bias which caused by married women’s self selection arising from the labor participation decision, and apply Heckman’s two-stages estimation procedure to correction.（2）time allocation estimation: to take into account of married women’s self selection on labor participation, and apply the "endogenous switching regression model" to estimating the time allocation function. Besides, to take into account of the correlation among married women’s three different kinds of time allocation , and apply the "seemingly unrelated regression estimation ( SURE )" to jointly estimating married women’s working hours on house work, leisure activity and market hours of labor. （3）home production estimation: apply Gronau’s model (1980) to estimating the productivity and the value of home production in Taiwan area, hence outlining the married women’s household chores production in Taiwan area, enriching the estimation of our country MEW, and providing reference to family court hearing of the " money at house worker’s disposal " cases.
The research found out that the median value of married women’s home production in Taiwan area is about NT$ 51,000 which accounts for around 63.99% of the average family monthly income. This percentage is similar to the result found in the United States — about 60% of the pre-tax average family monthly income and 70% of the after-tax average family monthly income, which is identified by Gronau (1980). In addition, the enlarged parameter of the original survey data from DGBAS and the "ratio estimation method" are also applied in this research, it is found that the total amount of married women’s home production in Taiwan area is about NT$ 4.825 trillion which accounts for about 49.21% of GNP（the product value via market exchange mechanism is NT$ 9.803 trillion in 2000）. This proportion is just in the middle of Hawrylyshyn’s reckoning (1976) of the home production value, which accounts for about 1/3 of GNP of the United States, and about 50-60﹪of GNP of developing countries.
一、中文部分
行政院主計處
1995《中華民國時間運用調查報告》，台北：中央文物供應社。
1994《中華民國婦女婚育與就業調查報告》，台北：中央文物供應社。
2001《中華民國婦女婚育與就業調查報告》，台北：中央文物供應社。
于若蓉、朱敬一
1988 《婦女勞動參與對生育行為之影響-兩制內生轉換模型之應用》， 經濟論文叢刊，16：2，225-249。
江錫九
1993 《已婚婦女勞動參與行為與時間運用型態之實證分析》，台灣大學經濟研究所碩士論文。
吳榮義
1979 ＜台灣婦女勞動參與率與勞力供給之研究＞，台北，中研院經濟所，《台灣人力資源會議論文集》，757-777。
吳惠林、藍科正、林嘉慧
1997 《從時間配置論兩性薪資差異》，國科會研究計畫成果報告，臺北：中華經濟研究院。
李美玲
1997 ＜台灣老年女性經濟處境與經濟安全＞，孫得雄、齊力、李美玲主編之《人口老化與老年照護》，中華民國人口學會。
李美玲、楊亞潔、伊慶春
2000 ＜家務分工：就業現實還是平等理念?＞，《台灣社會學刊》，24：59-88。
徐美
2001 ＜育兒羈絆與成本對有偶婦女勞動供給影響之研究-二階段一般化Tobit模型之應用＞，台北大學，第五次經濟發展研討會。
陶在樸、謝振環
1999 ＜綠色國民所得帳與政策工具規劃＞，環保署委託計劃-我國第二版永續經濟福利指標試編及國際比較（EPA-1202-03-005），98-99及附錄56。
陳良潮
1987《婦女家務價值的理論與估計》，台灣大學經濟研究所碩士論文。
陳博文
1989《台灣地區有偶婦女勞動供給的多重選擇分析》，台灣大學經濟研究所碩士論文。
張素梅
1978 ＜台灣都市生育水準對婦女勞動參與行為之影響＞，《經濟論文叢刊》，第八期，227-273。
1988 ＜婦女勞動參與率的研究-聯立模型分析＞，《經濟論文叢刊》，16：2，175-196。
張清溪
1979 ＜失業率與台灣婦女勞動參與＞，《中國經濟學會年會論文集》，97-112。
1980 ＜結婚生育與子女數對有偶婦女勞動供給的影響＞，《經濟論文叢刊》，9：2，167-223。
1982 ＜台灣有偶婦女勞動參與＞，《中國經濟學會年會論文集》，97-127。
1983 ＜台北婦孺之時間用途分析＞，台北，《中研院三民所叢刊》，第三次社會指標研討會，141-206。
1988＜台灣勞動市場研究的檢討＞，《經濟論文叢刊》，16：2，125-130。
張國書
1998《工作與家庭：天平的兩端，必然的兩難?－婦女勞動困境之國際人權法及比較法對策初探》台灣大學法律研究所碩士論文。
張嘉淳
2000《台灣有偶婦女的勞動供給行為－個人與家庭特性對從業身分選擇之影響》，台灣大學經濟研究所碩士論文。
許秀雯
1998《勞動、性別與女性主義法學》，中興大學法律研究所碩士論文。
郭玲惠
2000 ＜女性勞動政策與法規範＞，《月旦法學雜誌》，59，51-62。
2001 ＜家務有給制於我國夫妻財產制中應有之地位＞，《萬國法律》，115，18-25。
黃茂源
1995 《台灣地區受僱者時間配置之探討》，國立中正大學勞工研究所碩士論文，嘉義。
黃毓蘋
1999《我國女性老年經濟安全保障權益變革－從依附到自主?從歧視到公平?》，中正大學社會福利研究所碩士論文。
黃臺心
2000 ＜我國已婚婦女勞動供給的生命循環分析＞，《經濟論文叢刊》，28：1，1-24。
焦春生
1983《台北區有偶婦女時間運用形態及其決定因素》，台灣大學經濟研究所碩士論文。
單驥
1988 ＜我國小家庭夫妻勞動供給的決定－兼論所得稅的效果＞，《經濟論文叢刊》，16：2，251-270。
單驥、陳圳忠
1990 ＜台灣地區大小家庭結構對已婚婦女勞動供給的影響＞，人力變遷與經濟社會發展研討會，中研院經濟學研究所，255-276。
楊亞潔
2000《家務工作者在社會安全制度中的定位：付出與報酬觀點的分析》，國立中正大學社會福利研究所碩士論文。
楊昆城
1998《台灣小家庭時間運用之決策》，淡江大學經濟學研究所碩士論文。
劉克智
1988 ＜婦女勞動再參與的初步分析＞，《經濟論文叢刊》，16：2，149-174。
劉錦添、江錫九
1997 ＜台灣有偶婦女時間分配型態之實證研究＞，中研院中山人文社會科學研究 所，《人文及社會科學集刊》，9：3，1-29。
劉鶯釧
1988 ＜有偶婦女勞動參與的多重選擇模型＞,《經濟論文叢刊》，16：2， 133-148。
1992 ＜台灣的婦女勞動參與＞，《華嚴教授紀念論文集》，台大經濟系。
謝嘉雯
1985《台灣婦女勞動參與的決定因素：戰前與戰後的比較》，台灣大學經濟研究所碩士論文。
魏大喨
2001 ＜我國通常法定夫妻財產制之現在與展望＞，《政大法學評論》，65，87-130。
藍科正、吳惠林、林嘉慧
1997《台灣地區青年時間配置之研究》，臺北：青輔會。
羅紀瓊
1986 ＜已婚婦女勞動參與的再思＞，《經濟論文叢刊》，14：1，113-130。
二、英文部分
Ashenfelter , Orley , and James Heckman
1974 “The Estimation of Income and Substitution Effects in a Model of Family Labor Supply.” Econometrica , 42(1) : 73-85 .
Ault,D.E., and Gilbert L. Rutman
1992 “The Effects of Social, Political, and Economics Constraints on the Black African’s Allocation of Time : Evidence from Oscillating Migrants in the Republic of South Africa.”, Oxford Economics Papers, 44,135-155.
Beck , U.
1992 Risk Society : Towards a new Modernity. London : Sage.
Becker, Gary S.
1965 “A Theory of the Allocation of Time.” The Economic Journal, 75(299)：493-517.
1974 “A Theory of Social Interaction.” Journal of Political Economy , 82, 1063-1093.
1986 The Economic Approach to Human Behavior, Chicago : University of Chicago Press.
Benhabib, J., Richard Rogerson, and Randall Wright.
1991 “Homework in Macroeconomics : Household Production and Aggregate Fluctuations.” Journal of Political Economy , Vol.99, no.6,1166-1187.
Bowen, W.G., and T.A. Finegan
1969 The Economics of Labor Force Participation, N. J. Princeton Univ. Press.
Cain and Dookey
1976 “Estimation of a Model of Labor Supply, Fertility and Wages of Married Women” Journal of Political Economy , 84（4）, part 2 : 179-199.
Chiswick , Carmel U.
1982 “The Value of a Housewife’s Time.” Journal of Human Resources, 17（3）,413-425.
Dowd , Nancy E.
1990 “Work and Family : Restructuring the Workplace. ” 32 Ariz L. Rev. 431. p.490.
Ehrengberg , R.G. and Smith , R.S.
1985 Morden Labor Economics：Theorys and Public Policy. 2nd ed., IL; Scott, Foreman and Company.
Giddens, A.
2000 Runaway World: How Globalization is Reshaping our lives. New York: Routledge.
Graham , John W. ,and Carole A. Green
1984 “Estimating the Parameters of a Household Production Function with Joint Products. ” The Review of Economics and Statistics , 65(2) : 277-82.
Gramm, W.L.
1975 “Household Utility Maximization and the Working Wife.”，American Economic Review，90-100.
Greene, William H.
1993 Econometric Analysis. 2nd ed., New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Greenwood, Jeremy and Richard Rogerson
1993 “Putting Home Economics into Macroeconomics.”, Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Quarterly Review, Vol. 17, no. 3, 2-11.
1995 “Household Production in Real Business Cycle Theory.” In Frontiers of Business Cycle Research, edited by Thomas F. Cooley , Princeton University Press.
Gronau , Reuben
1973 “The Effect of Children on the Housewife’s Value of Time.” Journal of Political Economy , Supplement ,81, 168-199.
1976 “The Allocation of Time of Israel Women.” Journal of Political Economy, 84,(4), pt. 2, suppl. ,s201-s220.
1977 “Leisure, Home Production, and Work : The Theory of the Allocation of Time Revisited.” Journal of Political Economy , 85, 1099-1123.
1980 “Home Production - A Forgotten Industry.” Review of Economics and Statistics, 62, 408-416.
1986 “Home Production - A Survey“. In Handbook of Labor Economics, Volume I , ed. Orley C. Ashenfelter and Richard Layard , 273-304. Amsterdam : Elsevier Science Publishers BV.
1997 “The Theory of Home Production：The Past Ten Years.” Journal of Labor Economics , Vol. 15, no. 2 , 197-205.
Hausman , J. and Ruud P.
1984 “Family Labor Supply with Tax.” American Economic Review , Vol. 74, No. 2, 242-248
Hawrylyshyn , Oli
1976 “The Value of Household Services : A Survey of Empirical Estimates.” Review of Income and Wealth , 22（2）,101-130.
Heckman , James J.
1971 Three Essays on Household Labor Supply and the Demand for Market Goods. Ph. D. Thesis , Princeton University.
1974 “Shadow Prices, Market Wage, and Labor Supply.” Econometrica , Vol. 42, No 4, July.679-694.
1979 “Sample Selection Bias as a Specification Error.” Econometrica , 47, 153-161.
Hersh, Joni and Leslie S. Stration
1994 “Housework, Wages, and the Division of Housework Time for Employed Spouses.” American Economic Review, 84（2）,120-125.
Hill , M. A.
1983 “Female Labor Force Participation in Developed and Developing Countries Consideration of the Informal Sector”. Review of Economics and Statistics , 65, 459-468.
Hill , C.R., and F. Stanfford
1974 “Allocation of Time to Preschool Children and Education Opportunity.”, Journal of Human Resources, 323-341.
Irwin, S.
1999 “Resourcing the Family : Gender Claims and Obligations and Issues of Explanation.” In Silva, E. B. & Smart, C.(eds.) The New Family? London : Sage.
Juster , F. Thomas, and Frank P.Stafford
1985 Time, Goods, and Well-Being, Ann Arbor : Institute for Social Research , University of Michigan
1991 “The Allocation of Time : Empirical Findings, Behavioral Models, and Problems of Measurement.” Journal of Economic Literature , 29:2, 471-522.
Khan, Muhammad Mahmud
1987 Time Allocation Pattern in Rural Bangladesh : A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, CA：Stanford University .
Khandker , Shahidur R.
1987a “Women’s Time Allocation and Household Nonmarket Production in Rural Bangladesh.” Journal of Developing Areas , 22, 85-102.
1987b “Labor Market Participation of Married Women in Bangladesh.” Review of Economics and Statistics , 536-541.
1988 “Determinants of Women’s Time Allocation in Rural Bangladesh.” Economic Development and Cultural Change , 111-126.
Killingsworth , Mark R.
1983 Labor supply , Cambridge : Cambridge U. Press.
Killingsworth, Mark R. ,and James J. Heckman.
1986 “Female Labor Supply: A Survey. ” In Handbook of Labor Economics, Volume I , ed. Orley C. Ashenfelter and Richard Layard , 103-204. Amsterdam : Elsevier Science Publishers BV.
Kooreman, Peter and Arie Kapetyn
1987 “A Disaggregated Analysis of the Allocation of Time within the Household.” Journal of Political Economy , 95, (2), 223-249.
1990 “On the Empirical Implementation of Some Game Theoretic Models of Household Labor Supply.” Journal of Human Resources, 25(4) : 584-98.
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Lancaster , Kelvin J.
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Long, J.E., and E.B. Jones
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1994 “Non-cooperative Bargaining Models of Marriage", American Economic Review (papers and proceedings) 84,132-137.
Malathy , R.
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Manser, M., and M. Brown
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