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題名:Copyright Ownership of Conventional Academic Works and On-Line Academic Works Created by University Professors
書刊名:東吳法律學報
作者:林利芝 引用關係
作者(外文):Lin, Lichih
出版日期:2003
卷期:14:2
頁次:頁187-258
主題關鍵詞:著作人著作著作權勞力成果經濟誘因受雇人雇用人受聘人出資人著作權歸屬著作人身份聘僱著作法則聘僱著作條款美國1909年著作權法美國1976年著作權法美國千禧年數位著作權法職務範圍傳統學術著作網路學術著作課程教材教學題材衍生著作學術例外代理法則學術自由共同著作利用權補償書面協議著作權白皮書臺灣1985年著作權法臺灣1992年著作權法臺灣1998年著作權法AuthorWritingsCopyrightFruit of laborEconomic incentiveEmployeeEmployerThe independent contractorThe commissioning partyCopyright ownershipAuthorshipThe work made for hire doctrineThe work made for hire provisionThe 1909 copyright actThe 1976 copyright actThe 1998 digital millennium copyright actWithin the scope of employmentConventional academic worksOn-line academic worksCourse materialsTeaching materialsDerivative worksAcademic exceptionThe agency law principleAcademic freedomJoint authorshipShop rightReimbursementExpress written agreementCopyright ownership policyThe 1985 Taiwan copyright lawThe 1992 Taiwan copyright lawThe 1998 Taiwan copyright law
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為促進科學與文化的發展,美國憲法授權美國國會制訂著作權法,在有限的時間內授典著作人對其著作之專屬權。授與著作人或創作人勞力成果的著作權,提供了著作人或創作人創作的經濟誘因。 一般而言,著作人是指為其私人動機而創作著作的人,因而理當擁有其著作的所有權利。然而因世界已高度工業化,愈來愈多的著作是因受雇人的職務而創作,或由為創作著作而雇用之受聘人所創作。身為創作著作的幕後推手,雇用人或出資人對由受雇人或受聘人所創作之著作的著作權歸屬提出異議,主張其應擁有受僱人或受聘人所創作之著作的著作權。因為認同雇用人應擁有其特別雇用某人所創作之著作的著作權,因此視雇用人為其受雇人創作之著作權所有人的「聘僱著作」法則,在美國1909年著作權法制訂之前,已被法官適用在某些案件中。為保護雇用人的投資,「聘僱著作」法則首次在美國1909年著作權法第26條條文中明文制訂。該條文規定在聘僱著作情形下,「著作人」包括雇用人。籍著授與著作人身份給雇用人,美國1909年著作權法將職務著作(受雇人為雇用人創作之著作)規定為著作權歸屬的重要例外。身為著作人,雇用人有權取得美國1909年著作權法第9條條文所授與之著作權。 「聘僱著作」法則在美國1909年著作權法第26條條文中明文制定後,一度成為大學教授的夢魘。教授一向認為和至今仍然認為他們擁有其學術著作之著作權,但根據美國1909年著作權法第26條條文裡視雇用人為受雇人創作著作之著作權所有人的推定,大學(雇用人)可依據其與教授之間的雇用關係和教授的學術著作是教授在職務(教學)範圍內所創作的著作,來主張其擁有教授(受雇人)創作之學術著作的著作人身份和著作權。然而根據缺乏判決大學擁有教授學術著作之著作權的先例,和大學向來不與教授爭奪教授學術著作之著作權的慣例,一些法院認為美國1909年著作權法之「聘僱著作」法則不適用於大學教授。這個由法官制訂的例外,被稱為是將大學教授排除於「聘僱著作」法則適用外的「學術例外」。 為修正美國1909年著作權法,美國1976年著作權法的「聘僱著作」條款納入依據1909年著作權法裁決案件中所制定之「聘僱著作」的定義。美國1976年著作權法將「聘僱著作」明文定義為(1)受雇人在其職務範圍內創作的著作,或(2)受聘人在其受聘範圍內創作的著作。美國1976年著作權法並規定除非雇用人與受雇人或出資人與受聘人之間另有約定則從其約定外,在聘僱著作的情形下,雇用人或出資人被視為此聘僱著作之著作人,並擁有著作權。除了「聘僱著作」條款中的「書面協議例外」,美國國會並未將「學術例外」也納入「聘僱著作」條款,因此一些評論者認為美國1976年著作權法之「聘僱著作」條款中對「聘僱著作」的明文定義,已將「聘僱著作」法則不適用於大學教授的「學術例外」廢除。至今尚無任何案件是裁決這個爭議,然而有些法官在判決的私人意見裡對於「學術例外」在1976年著作權法制訂後仍繼續存在的提議表示贊同。 美國1976年著作權法是否允許大學對於教授所創作之傳統學術著作主張其擁有著作人身份和著作權,仍待法院裁決或國會立法,但是大學和教授對於根據教授現有傳統學術著作而製作之網路學術著作的著作權歸屬爭奪戰已日趨白熱化。因為網際網路的盛行,使得網路遠距教學的商機蓬勃發展,大學便將目標從教授的傳統學術著作轉移至教授的網路學術著作。受到將教授網路學術著作商業化可獲取高額利潤所趨使,美國一些著名的大學開始與教授爭奪教授網路學術著作的著作人身份和著作權。 雖然美國國會於1998年制訂「千禧年數位著作權法」來規範有關網路遠距教學所使用之現有傳統學術著作和課程教材的著作權爭議,但美國「千禧年數位著作權法」並沒有針對為網路遠距教學所創作或採用之傳統學術著作的著作權歸屬制訂任何規定,因此網路遠距教學所使用的教授傳統學術著作仍由美國1976年著作權法中的「聘僱著作」條款所規範。為爭奪教授網路學術著作的著作權,大學主張教授網路學術著作是根據大學所擁有著作權之教授職務著作而製作的「衍生著作」。身為「衍生著作」,除非另有契約約定,否則教授網路學術著作的著作權歸屬將由其所根據之教授現有傳統學術著作的著作權歸屬來決定。因此,教授傳統學術著作和網路學術著作的著作權歸屬,又再度成為學術界所關心的議題。 除了對簿公堂,教授們應了解他們能與大學協商解決著作權歸屬爭議的方法,以保護教授傳統學術著作和網路學術著作的著作人身份和著作權。其中一個解決方法是由教授與大學同意成為教授之所有學術著作的共同著作人。另外二種解決方法是由教授給予大學其學術著作之使用權,或教授支付大學其使用大學資源和設備以創作其學術著作的補償金。然而教授保有其所有學術著作之著作權的最有效方法,走向大學取得書面協議,明文約定教授為其學術著作之著作權所有人,但是許多大學並不會同意,甚至已經採用著作權白皮書來處理教授學術著作的著作權歸屬爭議,有效的著作權白皮書可能會因其契約態樣而改變教授傳統學術著作與網路學術著作的著作權歸屬。 相較於美國著作權法,臺灣1992年著作權法的修法理由中明確表示學術著作不屬於聘僱著作中的職務著作或受聘著作,因此臺灣1992年著作權法比美國1976年著作權法提供教授在面對大學爭奪教授學術著作的著作人身份和著作權時,較完善的著作權保護。然而台灣1998年著作權法的修正也許已將此「學術例外」廢除,致使臺灣的大學教授處於美國大學教授所面臨的相同困境。在這樣的情況下,一旦臺灣的大學意識到將教授學術著作商業化可獲取高額利潤,便會效法美國的大學,來爭奪教授傳統學術著作和網路學術著作的著作人身份和著作權。依據現行著作權法對於聘僱著作的規定,此著作權歸屬爭議的結果可能是教授仍然為其學術著作的著作人,而大學取得教授學術著作的著作財產權,這將對教授在日後使用或修改其學術著作造成限制。為保護其學術著作的著作權歸屬和其他附隨的幾項專屬著作權,任職於大學的教授皆應留意有關聘僱著作的任何著作權法修正。
In revising the 1909 Copyright Act, a definition of “worksmade for hire” which codified the law decided under the 1909 Copyright Act was incorporated into the Copyright Act of 1976 (“the1976 Copyright Act"). Section 101 of the 1976 Copyright Act defines a “work made for hire" as (1) a work created by an employee within the scope of employment; or (2) a work created by an independent contractor during the course of commission. The 1976 Copyright Act provides that in the case of a “work made for hire", the employer or the commissioning party for whom the work was created is deemed the author and owns the copyright unless there is a written agreement to the contrary. Based on the fact that Congress failed to incorporate the longstanding “academic exception" into Section 201(b) of the 1976 Copyright Act as a exception to the “work made for hire" doctrine other than the “signed written agreement" exception, some commentators argued that the language of the “work made for hire" provision in the 1976 Copyright Act has eliminated the “academic exception" for university professors. No case authority was exactly on point. Nevertheless, judges have spoken in dicta supporting the proposition that the “academic exception" had continued to exist after the enactment of the 1976 Copyright Act. Whether the “work made for hire" provision governing the employee­created works in the 1976 Copyright Act permits universities to claim authorship and copyright ownership in conventional acdemic works created by their professors has yet to be decided by courts or responded from congress, professors and universities have started another copyright ownership battle for on-line academic works produced by professors based substantially on preexisting conventional academic works crated by professors. With the growth of distance learning in the Internet, on-line academic works created by university professors were considered more valuable than ever. Some universities have come to view exploitation of on-line academic works produced by their professors as a means of filling the revenue gaps left by shrinking government grants and students tuition payments. Motivating by the considerable profit in commercializing on-line academic works produced by their professors, several leading universities such as Harvard Law School, have begun to compete with their professors for the copyright ownership of professors' on-line academic works. While the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 was enacted by Congress to deal with the copyright issues relating to the use of preexisting conventional academic works and course materials in the distance learning, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 however fails to address the copyright ownership issues with respect to preexisting academic works created or adopted for distance learning. Therefore, the authorship/copyright ownership of professors' preexisting conventional academic works is still governed by the 1976 Copyright Act's “work made for hire" provisions. To claim the copyright ownership of professors' on-line academic works, universities asserted that such works are derivative works based substantially on preexisting conventional academic works that are “works made for hire" whose copyright belonged to the employers-universities under the 1976 Copyright Act's“work made for hire" provisions. However, as derivative works, the copyright ownership of professors' on-line academic works will largely depend on the copyright ownership of preexisting conventional academic works created by professors, unless there is contrary agreement provided otherwise. Thus, the copyright ownership of professors' conventional academic works and on-line academic works under the 1976 Copyright Act's “work made for hire". provisions again become issues of great concern in the academic world.
期刊論文
1.Sandler, C.(2001)。Copyright Ownership: A Fundamental of 'Academic Freedom'。Albany Law Journal of Science & Technology,12。  new window
2.Holmes, G.、Levin, D. A.(2000)。Who Owns Course Materials Prepared by a Teacher or Professor? The Application of Copyright Law to Teaching Materials in the Internet Age。Brigham Young University Education and Law Journal,165。  new window
3.Laughlin, G. K.(2000)。Who Owns the Copyright to Faculty-Created Web Sites? The Work-Made-For-Hire Doctrine's Applicability to Internet Resources Created for Distance Learning and Traditional Classroom Courses。Boston College Law Review,41。  new window
4.Lape, L. G.(1992)。Ownership of Copyrightable Works of University Professors: The Interplay Between the Copyright Act and University Copyright Policies。Villanova Law Review,37。  new window
5.DuBoff, L. D.(1984)。An Academic's Copyright: Publish and Perish。Journal of the Copyright Society of the U. S. A.,32。  new window
6.Chew, Pat K.(1992)。Faculty-Generated Inventions: Who Owns The Golden Egg?。Wisconsin Law Review。  new window
7.Daniel, P. T. K.、Pauken, P. D.(1999)。The Impact of the Electronic Media on Instructor Creativity and Institutional Ownership Within Copyright Law。West's Education Law Reporter,132。  new window
8.Dreyfuss, R. C.(1987)。The Creative Employee and the Copyright Act of 1976。University of Chicago Law Review,54。  new window
9.VerSteeg, R.(1990)。Copyright and the Educational Process: The Right of Teacher Inception。Iowa Law Review,75。  new window
10.Cherensky, S.(1993)。A Penny for Their Thoughts: Employee-Inventors, Pre-invention Assignment Agreements, Property, and Personhood。California Law Review,81。  new window
11.Borow, T. A.(1998)。Copyright Ownership of Scholarly Works Created by University Faculty and Posted on School Provided Web Pages。University of Miami Business Law Review,7。  new window
12.Simon, T. F.(1983)。Faculty Writings: Are They 'Works Made For Hire' Under the 1976 Copyright Act。Journal of College and University Law,9。  new window
13.Carnahan, W. H.(1972)。Copyright in Our Realm of Learning。The College Counsel,71(1),421-477。  new window
圖書
1.謝銘洋、陳家駿、馮震宇、陳逸南、蔡明誠(200103)。著作權法解讀。臺北:元照出版社。  延伸查詢new window
2.Latman, Alan、Borman, Robert、Ginsburg, J. C.(1993)。Copyright for the Nineties: Cases and Materials。  new window
 
 
 
 
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