Abstract
Writings of envoys have a long history in China. The Han dynasty inherited the etiquette and traditions of the Spring and Autumn period that “used poetry in diplomacy”, whereby writings of envoys could continue to be developed. However, only fragments of treasured works could be traced in history books. Envoys gradually developed a cross-border writing style in the Tang and Song dynasties. Diverse writing styles of envoys reached another peak in the Ming dynasty. Writings of envoys were not only records of what envoys saw and heard in the countries where they were appointed, but they also directly or indirectly reflected the unique cultural patterns and phenomena during the period that they were written.
During early Ming dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang actively expanded diplomatic relations with other countries to restore the glory of the Sui and Tang dynasties, a time when there were innumerable visits from foreign envoys. The Ming dynasty had its heyday at the time with envoys across different countries coming to pay tribute. However, the foreign relations of the Ming dynasty took a major turn when the Crisis of the Tumu Fortress took place during the reign of the Emperor Yingzong of Ming. To reposition itself as a suzerain and demonstrate the nation’s literary attainments and culture, emperors of the Ming dynasty began to appoint a large number of literati envoys to the tributary states. The said envoys would focus on whether the vassal states had observed the etiquette rules of the Ming dynasty, while exhibiting their nation’s rich cultural heritage by “citing poems to express their ideas”, so as to restore the glory of the Ming dynasty.
In recent years, East Asia has become more important than ever. As the government actively promotes the New Southbound Policy, studies on East Asia continue to grow, making travel and cross-border writings of envoys a trending research topic. Works of envoys have always been focused on a single region and written from a single perspective with a single storyline. There is hardly any study on horizontal integration of the said works and comparison of historical sources within the timeline of the Ming dynasty, from which writings of envoys can be woven to have an impact on the surrounding tributary states.
For the above reason, this study explores the cultural writings of envoys to East Asian tributary states, such as Korea, Ryukyu, and Annam, from after the Crisis of the Tumu Fortress to the reign of the Wanli Emperor. It focuses on commonalities among courtesies and sinicization, similar customs in different areas, and observation of the Ming dynasty etiquette from the perspectives of cultural observations made by envoys who were appointed to Korea and their identification with the Korean culture, exploration of Ryukyu and its customs by those who were appointed to the state, and reconstruction of memories of those who were appointed to Annam and their resonance with the state. After the said research and analysis, the study concludes the influence of these envoys on tributary states, such as Korea, Ryukyu, and Annam.