環境種族主義科學化的隱憂：以美國聯邦法院涉及種族歧視的判決為例_

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題名：	環境種族主義科學化的隱憂：以美國聯邦法院涉及種族歧視的判決為例
書刊名：	國家發展研究
作者：	黃之棟
作者(外文)：	Huang, Morgan Chih-tung
出版日期：	2011
卷期：	11:1
頁次：	頁131-169
主題關鍵詞：	環境種族主義；環境正義；科技與社會；科技社會與法律；歧視；Environmental justice；Environmental racism；STS；Science technology and society；STS and law；Discrimination
原始連結：	連回原系統網址
相關次數：	被引用次數:期刊(3) 博士論文(0) 專書(0) 專書論文(0) 排除自我引用:1 共同引用:6 點閱:406

環境種族主義顧名思義是在探討環境議題上與歧視相關的問題。由於事涉歧視的討論，人們多直覺認為相關判例的爭點，也必然集中在法哲學與道德的論辯上。不過，一旦仔細檢視這些經典判例，就會發現法庭上的攻防其實早已經「科學化」了。具體來說，兩造辯論聚焦在如何才能科學地證明歧視的動機與影響、以及怎樣準確測量歧視等議題上。通過這樣微觀的分析，我們清楚看見科學對法律的介入程度之大，幾乎排擠了原先應有的正義探索。對此，本文主張法學家應該認真看待現代社會中科學與法律的交錯，而不能自外於科學討論或冀望把科學的問題留待科學家去解決。

以文找文

This article examines three leading but failed cases involving environmental racism and analyzes the implications of these cases for how this concept is constructed in US courts. The courts have insisted that accusations of environmental racism require proof of intentional discrimination. This requirement has created a high hurdle for successfully arguing such cases. These three cases illustrate how legal terms such as intent, discrimination, and racism have been viewed in a scientific manner. Although the application of science to law sounds objective or "scientific," it is still very difficult to use science to measure and quantify discriminatory intent or racism. It is mistaken, this article argues, for activists to put all their eggs in the basket of science. The article suggests that activists should look for new perspectives on the conceptual foundations of environmental justice.

以文找文

期刊論文
1.	Baden, B. M.、Noonan, D. S.、Turaga, R. M. R.(200703)。Scales of justice: Is there a geographic bias in environmental equity analysis?。Journal of Environmental Planning and Management，50(2)，163-185。
2.	Collin, Robert W.(199403)。Review of the legal literature on environmental racism, environmental equity, and environmental justice。Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation，9(1)，121-171。
3.	Williams, R. W.(199904)。The contested terrain of environmental justice research: Community as unit of analysis。Social Science Journal，36(2)，313-328。
4.	Foster, S.(199312)。Race(ial) matters: The quest for environmental justice。Ecology Law Quarterly，20(4)，721-753。
5.	Pulido, Laura(2000)。Rethinking Environmental Racism: White Privilege and Urban Development in Southern California。Annals of the Association of American Geographers，90(1)，12-40。
6.	Anderson, A. B.、Anderton, D. L.、Oakes, J. M.(1994)。Environmental equity: Evaluating TSDF siting over the past two decades。Waste Age，25(7)，83-100。
7.	Anderton, D. L.、Anderson, A. B.、Oakes, J. M.、Fraser, M. R.(1994)。Environmental equity: The demographics of dumping。Demography，31(2)，229-248。
8.	Been, Vicki、Gupta, Francis(1997)。Coming to the nuisance or going to the barrios: A longitudinal analysis of environmental justice claims。Ecology Law Quarterly，24(1)，1-56。
9.	Bowen, William、Atlas, Mark、Lee, Sugie(2009)。Industrial agglomeration and the regional scientific explanation of perceived environmental injustice。The Annals of Regional Science，43(4)，1013-1031。
10.	Bullard, Robert D.(2001)。Environmental justice in the 21st Century: Race still matters。Phylon，49(3/4)，151-171。
11.	Tsao, Naikang(1992)。Ameliorating environmental racism: A citizens' guide to combating the discriminatory siting of toxic waste dumps。New York University Law Review，67(2)，366-418。
12.	Walker, Gordon(2009)。Beyond distribution and proximity: Exploring the multiple spatialities of environmental justice。Antipode，41(4)，614-636。
13.	Zimmerman, Rae(199408)。Issues of classification in environmental equity: How we manage is how we measure。Fordham Urban Law Journal，21(3)，633-669。
14.	Been, Vicki(1992)。What's fairness got to do with it? Environmental justice and the siting of locally undesirable land uses。Cornell Law Review，78(6)，1001-1085。
15.	Pastor Jr, M.、Sadd, J.、Hipp, J.(2001)。Which Came First? Toxic facilities, Minority Move-In, and Environmental Justice。Journal of Urban Affairs，23(1)，1-21。
16.	Williams, R. W.(2005)。Getting to the heart of environmental injustice: Social science and its boundaries。Theory and science，16(1)。
17.	Taylor, Dorceta E.(2000)。The Rise of the Environmental Justice Paradigm: Injustice Framing and the Social Construction of Environmental Discourses。American Behavioral Scientist，43(4)，508-580。
18.	McGurty, E. M.(1997)。From NIMBY to civil rights: The origins of the environmental justice movement。Environmental History，2(3)，301-323。
19.	黃之棟、黃瑞祺(20090600)。環境正義的經濟向度：環境正義與經濟分析必不相容？。國家與社會，6，51-102。延伸查詢
20.	劉湘溶、張斌(2008)。環境正義的三重屬性。天津社會科學，2008(2)，30-33。延伸查詢
21.	張斌、陳學謙(2008)。環境正義研究述評。倫理學研究，2008(4)，59-61。延伸查詢
22.	張登巧(2006)。環境正義：一種新的正義觀。吉首大學學報，27(4)，41-44。延伸查詢
23.	張登巧(2009)。人學視野中的環境正義。吉首大學學報，30(3)，1-4。延伸查詢
24.	晉海(2008)。美國環境正義運動及其對我國環境法學基礎理論研究的啟示。河海大學學報，10(3)，24-28。延伸查詢
25.	Bullard, R. D.(1994)。A new Chicken-or-Egg debate: Which came first--The neighborhood, or the toxic dump?。Workbook，19(2)，60-62。
26.	Gareis-Smith, D.(1994)。Environmental racism: The failure of equal protection to provide a judicial remedy and the potential of Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act。Temp. Envtl. L. and Tech. J.，13，57-80。
27.	Fisher, M.(1994)。On the road from environmental racism to environmental justice。Villanova Environmental Law Journal，5，449-478。
28.	Bullard, R. D.(1999)。Leveling the playing field through environmental justice。Vermont Law Review，23(3)，453-478。
29.	Burwell, D.、Cole, L.(2007)。Environmental justice comes full circle: Warren County before and after。Golden Gate University Environmental Law Journal，1，9-40。
30.	Cole, L. W.(1992)。Empowerment as the key to environmental protection: The need for environmental poverty law。Ecology Law Quarterly，19(4)，619-683。
31.	Collin, R. W.(1991)。Environmental equity: A law and planning approach to environmental racism。Virginia Environmental Law Journal，11(4)，495-546。
32.	Downey, L.(2005)。Assessing environmental inequality: How the conclusions we draw vary according to the definitions we employ。Sociological Spectrum，25(3)，349-369。
33.	Kaswan, A.(1997)。Environmental Justice: Bridging The Gap Between Environmental Laws and Justice。America University Law Review，47(2)，221-301。
34.	La Londe, K.(2004)。Who wants to be an environmental justice advocate: Options for bringing an environmental justice complaint in the wake of Alexander v. Sandoval。Boston Colleege environmental Affairs Law Review，31，27-60。
35.	Lee, C.(2007)。Warren County's Legacy for the Quest to Eliminate Health Disparities。Golden Gate University Environmental Law Jouornal，1(1)，53-72。
36.	Maantay, J.(2002)。Mapping Environmental Injustices: Pitfalls and Potential of Geographic Information Systems in Assessing Environmental Health and Equity。Environmental Health Perspectives，110(2)，161-171。
37.	Noonan, D. S.、Turaga, R. M. R.、Baden, B. M.(2009)。Superfund, hedonics, and the scales of environmental justice。Environmental Management，44(5)，909-920。
38.	Smith, B.(1994)。Ethics, the Legacy of the Reverend Doctor Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Movement toward Environmental Justice。Envtl. LJ，1，1-16。
39.	Smith, K.(1996)。How the Legal System Has Failed the Environmental Justice Movement。J. Nat. Resources & Envtl. L.，12，325-343。
40.	Taylor, D. E.(1989)。Blacks and the environment: Toward an explanation of the concern and action gap between Blacks and Whites。Environment and Behavior，21(2)，175-250。
41.	O'connor, M.(2007)。A failure to protect: After 13 years environmental justice never materializes。Southern University Law Review，35，119-146。
42.	Pulido, L.(1996)。A critical review of the methodology of environmental racism research。Antipode，28(2)，142-159。
43.	Williams, R. W.(1999)。Environmental injustice in America and its politics of scale。Political Geography，18(1)，49-73。
44.	Worsham, J.(2000)。Disparate impact lawsuits under Title VI, Section 602: Can a legal tool build environmental justice?。BC Envtl. Aff. L. Rev.，27(4)，631-779。
45.	Yamamoto, E. K.、Lyman, J.-L. W.(2001)。Racializing environmantal justice。RaUniversity of Colorado Law Review，72，311-360。

圖書
1.	Bullard, R. D.、Mohai, P.、Saha, R.、Wright, B.(2007)。Toxic wastes and race at twenty 1987-2007: Grassroots struggles to dismantle environmental racism in the United States。Cleveland, OH：United Church of Christ Justice。
2.	Schlosberg, David(1999)。Environmental Justice and the New Pluralism: The Challenge of Difference for Environmentalism。Oxford University Press。
3.	Rhodes, Edwardo L.(2005)。Environmental justice in America: A new paradigm。Bloomington, IN：Indiana University Press。
4.	McGurty, E.(2007)。Transforming Environmentalism: Warren County, PCBs, and the Origins of Environmental Justice。Piscataway, NJ：Rutgers University Press。
5.	Schlosberg, David(2007)。Defining Environmental Justice: Theories, Movements, and Nature。Oxford University Press。
6.	Bryant, Bunyan(1995)。Environmental Justice: Issues, Policies, and Solutions。Island Press。
7.	Bullard, Robert D.(1990)。Dumping in dixie: Race, class, and environmental quality。Boulder：Oxford：Westview Press。
8.	Boerner, C.、Lambert, T.(1994)。Environmental justice。St. Louis。
9.	Davy, B.(1997)。Essential injustice: When legal institutions cannot resolve environmental and land use disputes。Vienna。
10.	Bullard, R. D.(1995)。Decision Making。Faces of environmental racism: Confronting issues of global justice。Lanham, Md.; London。
11.	Chavis, B.(1994)。Preface。Unequal protection: environmental justice and communities of color。San Francisco。
12.	Hoban, T. M.、Brooks, R. O.(1996)。Environmental ideals: Equitable distribution of rights and liabilities。Green justice: the environment and the courts。Boulder。

其他
1.	US Commission on Civil Rights(2003)。Not in my backyard: Executive order 12,898 and Title VI as tools for achieving environmental justice，http://www.usccr.gov/pubs/envjust/ej0104.pdf。
2.	Ash, M.，Boyce, J. K.，Chang, G.，Pastor, M.，Scoggins, J.，Tran, J.(2009)。Justice in the air: Tracking toxic pollution from America's industries and companies to our States, cities, and neighborhoods，http://www.peri.umass.edu/fileadmin/pdf/dpe/ctip/justice_in_the_air.pdf， 20100120。
3.	Banzhaf, H. S.(2008)。Environmental justice: Opportunities through markets，http://www.perc.org/articles/article1113.php， 20100220。
4.	Pastor, M.，Porras, C.，Sadd, J.(1999)。Which Came First, Hazardous Site or Minority Population?，http://articles.latimes.com/1999/oct/17/opinion/op-23265， 20090423。

圖書論文
1.	Been, Vicki(1995)。Market force, not racist practices, may affect the siting of locally undesirable land uses。Environmental justice。San Diego, Calif.：Greenhaven Press。
2.	Ringquist, E. J.(2006)。Environmental Justice: Normative Concerns, Empirical Evidence, and Government Action。Environmental policy: new directions for the twenty-first century。Washington, D.C.：CQ Press。

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